Abstract: This study explores the factors contributing to milk contamination, a continuing public health issue in developing countries. The research aimed to assess the prevalence of microbial contamination, hygienic and handling practices, milk quality testing methods, dairy feed management, and the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of farmers regarding milk safety. A mixed-methods, cross-sectional design was used, involving 217 dairy farmers supplying milk in Bugesera District. Data were collected using surveys, interviews, and focus group discussions. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Fisher’s exact test, and odds ratios (OR) at a 95% confidence interval, while qualitative data were examined through content analysis. Ethical approval was obtained from Mount Kenya University and Bugesera District authorities. Findings revealed a 24% prevalence of milk contamination (n=52), significantly associated with poor hygiene practices (p=0.034). While 77.9% of farmers reported washing their hands and 71.9% cleaned udders before milking, the OR (3.7; 95% CI; p=0.0345) indicated these practices had a protective effect against contamination. Concerning feed hygiene, 52% stored feed properly, and 53% inspected it regularly, yet 68% were unaware of mycotoxin risks from fungal contamination. In milk quality testing, 33.6% relied on simple organoleptic assessments, whereas advanced tests like the California Mastitis Test (CMT) were conducted only at milk collection centers, with notable gaps in antibiotic residue and aflatoxin testing—posing significant health risks. The study also found that proper milk storage in aluminum containers reduced contamination (RR = 3.0–3.88; p=0.043), while plastic containers increased risk (OR = 4.1) due to poor sterilization and micro-cracks. Overall, the findings demonstrate that microbial contamination in milk is driven by inadequate hygiene practices, poor feed management, limited farmer knowledge, and insufficient milk testing procedures. The study recommends targeted farmer training to improve milk hygiene, feed safety, and diagnostic testing at both farm and milk collection center levels to ensure safe milk production and protect public health.
Keywords: Milk contamination, Safety, Hygiene Practice, Milk Testing, Mycotoxins, Antimicrobial resistance.
Title: Determinants of increased microbial contamination of milk among dairy farmers in Bugesera District, Rwanda
Author: SIBOMANA Ephrem, Maurice B. Silali, Munyaneza Celestin, Munyampuhwe Severin, Bizimana Ferdinand
International Journal of Healthcare Sciences
ISSN 2348-5728 (Online)
Vol. 13, Issue 2, October 2025 - March 2026
Page No: 64-73
Research Publish Journals
Website: www.researchpublish.com
Published Date: 27-October-2025
